tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-45754284006371969722024-03-08T11:47:25.784-08:00Ilmu HukumBlog ini berisi artikel-artikel yang berhubungan dengan hukum, baik hukum nasional maupun internasional.Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.comBlogger6125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-62608900092873187862012-02-13T22:41:00.000-08:002012-02-14T07:46:07.989-08:00THE LEGAL ANALYSIS OF MoU ON ENVIRONMENTAL COOPERATION BETWEEN THE PROVINCE OF ACEH OF THE REPUBLIC OF INDONESIA, AND THE STATES OF CALIFORNIA, ILLIONOIS AND WISCONSIN OF THE USA<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CHAPTER I</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">INTRODUCTION</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">On
November 18, 2008, Governor of the Province of Aceh of the Republic of
Indonesia Irwandi Yusuf was signed a Memorandum of Understanding (Mou) on
Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Land Degradation (REDD) between
several Governor of the States of the USA. <span class="apple-style-span">The
Memorandum of Understanding commits the California, Illinois and Wisconsin to
work with the governors of six states and provinces within Indonesia and Brazil
to help slow and stop tropical deforestation, a source of roughly 20 percent of
global greenhouse gas emissions. The governors include Governor Antônio Waldez
Góes da Silva of Amapa, Brazil; Governor Eduardo Braga of Amazonas, Brazil;
Governor Blario Maggi of Mato Grosso, Brazil; Governor Ana Júla de Vasconcelos
Carepa of Para, Brazil; Governor Yusof Irwandi of Aceh, Indonesia; and Governor
Barnamas Suebu of Papua, Indonesia.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"></span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> The
agreement was proposed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation
and land degradation; the signatories of the agreement intend to develop a new
effective plan to cope with that issue. Governor Schwarzenegger said.
"With this agreement, we are focusing our collective efforts on the
problem and requiring our states to jointly develop rules, incentives and tools
to ensure reduced emissions from deforestation and land degradation. We are
also sending a strong message that this issue should be front and center during
negotiations for the next global agreement on climate change."</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Teuku
Rafli Pasha<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a>,
Governor Irwandi was invited personally by Arnold Schwarzenegger<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>because he amazed with Irwandi’s
innovative program Aceh Green; Arnold also said that Aceh Green Program will make
Aceh plays a significant role in global scope in order to reduce the emission
of green house effect.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> But, based on information expressed by a current
research, Governor Irwandi did not hold a full power to sign the MoU at that
time and they assume that the MoU is illegal. However, according to my analysis
of this case, that is not true, and there are several arguments can support and verify that this MoU is
legal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CHAPTER II</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">THEORETICAL
BASIS</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> The definition of treaty is
described in Article 2 para. 1(a) of Vienna Convention<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">:”treaty means an international agreement
concluded between States in written form and governed by international law,
whether embodied in a single instrument or in two or more related instruments
and whatever its particular designation”</i>. According to this, we can make a
simple decision about the elements required of treaty: between states, in
written form, and governed by international law. All of these elements have to
be fullfiled of a treaty.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> There are several terms that relate
to treaty, such as convention, declaration, statute, charter, covenant, agreement,
pact, and protocol<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a>.
But, how about MoU? "The term memorandum
of understanding (MoU) is often used to denote a less formal international
instrument than a typical treaty or international agreement. It often sets out
operational arrangements under a framework international agreement. It is also
used for the regulation of technical or detailed matters; An MoU typically
consists of a single instrument and is entered into among States and/or
international organizations. The United Nations usually concludes MoU with
Member States in order to organize its peacekeeping operations or to arrange
United Nations conferences. The United Nations also concludes M.O.U.s regarding
cooperation with other international organizations. The United Nations
considers M.O.U.s to be binding and registers them if submitted by a party or
if the United Nations is a party."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a>
Another definition, A memorandum of
understanding (MOU) is a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document" title="Document"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">document</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">
describing a </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilateralism" title="Bilateralism"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">bilateral</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> or </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multilateral" title="Multilateral"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">multilateral</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">
agreement between parties. It expresses a convergence of will between the
parties, indicating an intended common line of action. It is often used in
cases where parties either do not imply a legal commitment or in situations
where the parties cannot create a legally enforceable agreement.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></a> The Province of Aceh under Article 8 UU
No. 11/2006<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></a>
is given a special autonomy status to make an international cooperation. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pasal 8(1): </i>“ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rencana persetujuan internasional yang berkaitan langsung dengan
Pemerintahan Aceh yang dibuat oleh Pemerintah dilakukan dengan konsultasi dan
persetujuan DPRA”.</i> Although Aceh Government can build international
cooperation, they cannot make an agreement with international in part of
political aspect, defense and security of nation, judicial, national monetary
and fiscal, and religion.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Well, in term of full power there
are several definitions given:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Article
2 para. 1 (c)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></a>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">“full powers”
means a document emanating from the competent authority of a State designating
a person or persons to represent the State for negotiating, adopting or
authenticating the text of a treaty, for expressing the consent of the State to
be bound by a treaty, or for accomplishing any other act with respect to a
treaty; </span></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Article
1 para. 1<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, Surat Kuasa (Full Powers) adalah surat yang dikeluarkan oleh Presiden atau
Menteri yang memberikan kuasa kepada satu atau beberapa orang yang mewakili
Pemerintah Republik Indonesia untuk menandatangani atau menerima naskah
perjanjian, menyatakan persetujuan negara untuk mengikatkan diri pada
perjanjian, dan/atau rnenyelesaikan hal-hal lain yang diperlukan dalam
pembuatan perjanjian internasional.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> The rule of full powers under 1969
Vienna Convention in Article 7:</span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1. A person is
considered as representing a State for the purpose of adopting or
authenticating the text of a treaty or for the purpose of expressing the
consent of the State to be bound by a treaty if: (a) he produces appropriate full powers; or (b) it appears from the practice of
the States concerned or from other circumstances that their intention was to
consider that person as representing the State for such purposes and to
dispense with full powers. </span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2. In virtue of their
functions and without having to produce full powers, the following are
considered as representing their State: (a)
Heads of State, Heads of Government and Ministers for Foreign Affairs, for the
purpose of performing all acts relating to the conclusion of a treaty; (b) heads of diplomatic missions, for
the purpose of adopting the text of a treaty between the accrediting State and
the State to which they are accredited; (c)
representatives accredited by States to an international conference or to an
international organization or one of its organs, for the purpose of adopting
the text of a treaty in that conference, organization or organ.</span></i></div>
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<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Article 8: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An act relating
to the conclusion of a treaty performed by a person who cannot be considered
under article 7 as authorized to represent a State for that purpose is without
legal effect unless afterwards confirmed by that State.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CHAPTER III</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">ANALYSING DATA</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> The agreement that was signed by Irwandi
relates to his initiative program ‘Aceh Green’ or ‘the Green Economic
Development and Investment Strategy fo Aceh. One of the purpose of this concept
is Aceh commits to prevent and preserve all of natural resources in Aceh and
this program was absolutely agreed by President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Governor
Irwandi was called by Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger because of this vision to
attend and make a corporation according to this issue. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> As mentioned above, Memorandum of
Understanding is used to less formal international instrument than a typical treaty
or international agreement. Relating to MoU that was signed by Irwandi, the 3
requirements of treaty mentioned in 1969 Vienna Convention has been fulfilled.
UU No. 32/2004 also gives a legal access to provincial government to make an
international cooperation relating to this aspect. The legal basis still
ambiguous relating to the procedure of making the Mou is Article 8(1) UU No.
11/2006<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a>.
This article mentions that an international agreement that is build by the
Government of Aceh has to be consulted and considered by DPRA. We can analyse
that the donation of Aceh Green Program comes from APBA (provincial fund) and
APBA is formulated by DPRA. So, it means that DPRA agree with the program.
Furthermore, the MoU on Environmental Cooperation is the advancement of the
program in order to create the visions that was reported. If we look into the
provisions of the MoU<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></a>
in Article 12: “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Parties acknowledge
that this Memorandum of Understanding is only intended to provide for
cooperation between the Parties, and does not create any legally binding rights
or obligations”.</i> This MoU does not like other treaty as usuall and create
any legally binding. it only to build a strong friendship between both
countries and do a cooperative efforts focused on environmental issue. So,
Governor Irwandi interprets that there are no illegal procedures about signing
the MoU.</span></div>
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In the provision of full powers,
national constitution regulates a strong rule in part of an international
agreements. It can be found in Article 7 of UU No. 24/2000<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[15]</span></span></span></a>. 1969
Vienna Convention regulate the same provisions in regard to full power
with UU No. 24/2000. Both regulations
see full power is on thing that very important. But in article 8 of Vienna
convention, in case of if someone who cannot show the full power document in
making an international agreement considered as illegal,except if the national
government see the agreement is legal. As long as we know, the MoU signed by
Irwandi get a positive support by President SBY, because it relates to
environmental issue.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">I Wayan Parthiana in
his book “ Hukum Perjanjian Internasional”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[16]</span></span></span></a>
mentioned that full power document is not a significant condition that make a
treaty is illegal. The important thing of this is each parties of an agreement
know the capacity each other or know who is she or he. Relating to the case, of
course others governor of USA know who Irwandi is. So, based on this the
agreement is legal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CHAPTER IV</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">CONCLUSION</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Under UU No. 11/2006, the Provincial
Government of Aceh is given a chance to make an international cooperation in
some aspects, including on environmental cooperation. Irwandi Yusuf as his
capacity as Governor of Aceh Province has signed a Memorandum of Understanding
on Environmental Cooperation with the State of California, Illionis and
Wisconsin of the United States of America. Although some people consider that
the MoU is illegal, because of Irwandi did not hold a full power to sign the
MoU at that time. But in my analysis that argument was wrong. My analysis based
on these reasons:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">a.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
term of MoU itself is different with the real definition of treaty; MoU is
often used to denote a less formal international instrument than a typical
treaty or international agreement. So, the provisions relate to a treaty which
are mentioned in some regulation explained above cannot be totally implemented
and the characteristic of the MoU itself only to build a cooperative plan to
save the environment.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">b.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
requirements of a treaty has been fulfilled.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">c.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In
todays world, without holding full power is not a condition that make an
international cooperation illegal. The important thing is each parties know the
capacity of other parties of a treaty and the MoU is accepted by the national
government.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">BIBLYOGRAPHY</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.guianashield.org/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">www.guianashield.org</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.beritasore.com/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">www.beritasore.com</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">I Wayan
Parthiana, SH. MH, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hukum Perjanjian
Internasional</i> Bagian 1<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </i>Bandung:
Penerbit Mandar Maju, 2002;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">United Nations, <i>Treaty
Handbook</i> ,New York: Treaty Section of the Office of Legal Affairs, 2006;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">www.wikipedia.com</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Republik
Indonesia, “Undang-Undang No. 11 Tahun 2006 Tentang Pemerintahan Aceh”;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Republik
Indonesia, “UU No. 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah”;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Republik
Indonesia, “Undang-Undang No. 24 Tahun 2000 Tentang Perjanjian Internasional”;</span></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Memorandum
of Understanding on Environmental Cooperation Between The Province of Aceh of
The Republic of Indonesia, and The States of California, Illinois and Wisconsin
of The United States of America;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a>
www.guianashield.org</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a>
ibid</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a>
Teuku Rafli Pasha adalah Koordinator Tim Asistensi Pemerintah Aceh dan
didampingi oleh Tim Komunikasi, Ahmad Kandang yang juga hadir dalam pertemuan
tersebut.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a>
www.beritasore.com</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a>
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a>
Didalam Bahasa Inggris, dikenal banyak istilah yang digunakan untuk menyebut
suatu perjanjian internasional. Beberapa istilah itu antara lain; treaty,
convention, agreement, arrangement, declaration, charter, covenant, statute,
protocol, pact, process verbal, modus Vivendi, act, final act, general act. ….
Istilah-istilah tersebut satu dengan lainnya tidak begitu jelas perbedaannya,
bahkan beberapa dari istilah itu juga tidak jelas artinya dan dalam hal apa
saja harus digunakan, See I Wayan Parthiana, SH. MH, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hukum Perjanjian Internasional</i> Bagian 1<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">, </i>Bandung: Penerbit Mandar Maju, 2002, p. 26</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a>
United Nations, <i>Treaty Handbook</i> ,New York: Treaty Section of the Office
of Legal Affairs, 2006, p.61</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span></a>
www.wikipedia.com</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span></a>
Republik Indonesia, “Undang-Undang No. 11 Tahun 2006 Tentang Pemerintahan
Aceh”, BAB IV, pasal 8(1).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span></a>
UU No. 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah Pasal 10 ayat (1):
Pemerintahan daerah menyelenggarakan urusan pemerintahan yang menjadi
kewenangannya, kecuali urusan pemerintahan yang oleh Undang-Undang ini
ditentukan menjadi urusan Pemerintah. (3) Urusan pemerintahan yang menjadi
urusan Pemerintah sebagaimana dimaksudkan pada ayat (1) meliputi: a. politik
luar negeri; b. pertahanan; c. keamanan; d. yustisi; e. moneter dan fiscal
nasional; dan f. agama.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span></a>
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties 1969</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span></a>
Republik Indonesia, “Undang-Undang No. 24 Tahun 2000 Tentang Perjanjian
Internasional”, BAB I pasal 1(1).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn13" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a>
UU No. 11 Tahun 2006 Tentang Pemerintahan Aceh Pasal 8(1): Rencana persetujuan
internasional yang berkaitan langsung dengan Pemerintahan Aceh yang dibuat oleh
Pemerintah dilakukan dengan konsultasi dan pertimbangan DPRA.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn14" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></a>
Memorandum of Understanding on Environmental Cooperation Between The Province
of Aceh of The Republic of Indonesia, and The States of California, Illinois
and Wisconsin of The United States of America</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">[15]</span></span></span></a>
Pasal 7 (1) <span style="font-size: 10pt;">Seseorang
yang mewakili Pemerintah Republik Indonesia, dengan tujuan menerima atau
menandatangani naskah suatu perjanjian atau mengikatkan diri pada perjanjian internasional,
memerlukan Surat Kuasa. (2) Pejabat yang tidak memerlukan Surat Kuasa
sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 1 Angka 3 adalah :a. Presiden, dan b. Menteri;
(3) Satu atau beberapa orang yang menghadiri, merundingkan, dan/atau menerima
hasil akhir suatu pertemuan internasional, memerlukan Surat Kepercayaan. (4)
Surat Kuasa dapat diberikan secara terpisah atau disatukan dengan Surat
Kepercayaan, sepanjang dimungkinkan, menurut ketentuan dalam suatu perjanjian
internasional atau pertemuan internasional. (5) Penandatangan suatu perjanjian
internasional yang menyangkut kerja sama teknis sebagai pelaksanaan dari
perjanjian yang sudah berlaku dan materinya berada dalam lingkup kewenangan
suatu lembaga negara atau lembaga pemerintah, baik departemen maupun non
departemen, dilakukan tanpa memerlukan Surat Kuasa.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[16]</span></span></span></a>
“kecenderungan masyarakat international untuk tidak terlalu menjadikan kuasa
penuh sebagai syarat formal untuk dapat melakukan perundingan maupun mengadopsi
naskah suatu perjanjian internasional,
mengingat kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi telekomunikasi, transportasi,
dan informasi… see I. Wayan Parthiana, SH. MH, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hukum Perjanjian Internasional </i>Bagian 1, Bandung: Penerbit Mandar
Maju, 2002, p.105</div>
</div>
</div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-63200646975278606092012-02-13T22:39:00.001-08:002012-02-14T07:51:05.356-08:00THE LEGAL STATUS OF THIRD STATES ACCORDING TO 1969 VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATY<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CHAPTER I</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">INTRODUCTION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BACKGROUND</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In todays world,
cooperation among states is one thing that cannot be avoided. Kind of lifes in
the world has become complex and potent to raise many problems. To avoid all of
these problems, of course the international society has to have a rule or norm.
This rule’s purpose not only to avoid the problems but also to keep the peace
regarding relationship among states. Realization of this cooperation will be
applied in a treaty.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Treaty is a
significant thing in a state relationship so it is one of sources of
international law. It is caused of various international society practices use
a treaty to control their business and maintain the relation among them. So,
clearly the role of treaty is very important.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">International
society then look that they need to have a law according to this. It is thought
that they will have a reference and orientation if they want to make a relation
or agreement with other countries. There are some international law
codification relate to treaty, but the most important instrument is 1969 Vienna
Convention on the Law of Treaties because it regulate specificly about the
general principle of international law of treaty. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">One of
significant things is the provisions of the 1969 Vienna Convention in relation
to treaties and third states. The relevant provisions in regard to third states
specifically consist in Chapter III Section 4 entitled “ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Treaties and Third States” </i>Articles 34 – 38.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">PROBLEMS
IDENTIFICATION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Based on the background which was
mentioned above this mini research paper will elaborate:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">What is meant by a third state in the
1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties?</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">What are the provisions in regard of
third state which are mentioned in the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties?</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 63.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<a name='more'></a>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CHAPTER
II</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">THEORITICAL
BASIS</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
Definition of Third States</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The provisions
which closely relate to definition of third state are contained in Article 2
para. 1 1969 Vienna Convention, namely:</span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">“</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;"> </span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">third State means a State not a party to the treaty</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">” (subpara. h)</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">party means a State which has consented to be
bound by the treaty and for which the treaty is in force</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">” (subpara. g)</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“</span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">contracting State means a State which has consented to be bound by
the treaty, whether or not the treaty has entered into force</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">” (subpara. f)</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“</span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">negotiating State means a State which took part in the drawing up
and adoption of the text of the treaty</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">” (subpara. e)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
above definitions, relate to two different situations: one concerns the status
of a state has espressed its concern to be bound and for which the treaty has
come in force (“party” to a treaty) and the second covers the situation in
which a treaty is not yet in force for a state (“contracting” and “negotiating”
states). Under this provision a state in relation to which a treaty is not yet
in force is a third state.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 27.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -27.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">B.<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
Provisions of 1969 Vienna Convention in Relation to Third States</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
determination relating to third state is mentioned explicitly in Article 34 –
38 1969 Vienna Convention. The significant principle is regulated in Article 34
that a treaty does not create either obligations or rights for a third state
without its consent. The Conventions distribute separately with obligations
(Article 35) and rights (Article 36). Article 37 regulates about the revocation
or modification of obligations or rights of third states. Lastly, Article 38
sets about the rules in a treaty becoming binding on third states through
international custom.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 34 which
is the general rule of third states mentions that there are no obligations or
rights which may be imposed to third states without its consent. This Article
clearly follows the rome statute principle “<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; padding: 0in;">Pacta
Tertiis Nec Nocent Nec Prosunt” </span></i><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-style: normal; padding: 0in;">meaning that a treaty does not
give any obligations or rights to third states.</span></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; font-style: normal; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">Article 35 “</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">An obligation arises for a third State from a provision of a
treaty if the parties to the treaty intend the provision to be the means of
establishing the obligation and the third State expressly accepts that
obligation in writing”. </span></i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">According to this
article, two conditions must be satisfied before a state can be bound by an
obligation arising from a provision in a treaty to which it is not a party:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">First, the parties must
intend the provision to be the means of establishing the obligation of third
state;</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Secondly, the third state
must have expressly accepted the obligation in writing.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Conduct consistent with
acceptance of the obligation will not, of itself, bind the third state. And,
even when a third state has accepted an obligation in a treaty, it does not
become a party to the treaty.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article
36 : “<i>Treaties providing for rights for third States”</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(1). </span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A right arises for a
third State from a provision of a treaty if the parties to the treaty intend
the provision to accord that right either to the third State, or to a group of
States to which it belongs, or to all States, and the third State assents
thereto. Its assent shall be presumed so long as the contrary is not indicated,
unless the treaty otherwise provides.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(2). A State exercising a right in accordance with paragraph 1
shall comply with the conditions for its exercise provided for in the treaty or
established in conformity with the treaty.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">There is nothing in international
law which prevents two or more states creating by treaty a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">right</i> in favour of third state. An intention to create only a
benefit (such as an agreement between the parties to restrict noxious emissions
which will, as a matter of fact, also benefit a third state) does not confer
any right on the third state. Whether states have created a right for a third
state depends on their intention.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 37: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(1)<span style="color: black;"> When an
obligation has arisen for a third State in conformity with article 35, the
obligation may be revoked or modified only with the consent of the parties to
the treaty and of the third State, unless it is established that they had
otherwise agreed. (2) When a right has arisen for a third State in conformity
with article 36, the right may not be revoked or modified by the parties if it
is established that the right was intended not to be revocable or subject to
modification without the consent of the third State.</span></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
initiative for revocation may come from the third state, in which case the
consent of the parties of the treaty is necessary; but if they wish to renounce
their right to call for the performance by the third state of the obligation,
the consent of the third state would be a formality.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a>
On the other hand, the third state’s obligations may involve a complex
relationship with the parties to the treaty, and possibly involve also the
rights of the third states. It is therefore desirable that any change in the
obligations should be by mutual consent. However, t</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">he
provision of Article 37 relates to O’Connel statement: <span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333;">“</span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; padding: 0in;">Once obligations or rights have occurred they can only be revoked
or modified with the consent of all state concerned</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333;">.”</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="color: black;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 38 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“</i></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nothing in articles 34 to 37 precludes a rule set forth in a
treaty from becoming binding upon a third State as a customary rule of
international law, recognized as such”. </span></i><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A treaty
may formulate a rule or establish a regime which later becomes generally accepted
by states which are not parties to the treaty.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a>
The provision of this article will be applied when a treaty become binding on
third states through the workings of customary rule of international law. According
to Article 38 (1) ICJ statute what is
meant by international custom: </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“</span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">international custom, as
evidence of general practice accepted as law</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">.”</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<span class="apple-style-span"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></i></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CHAPTER
II</span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">ANALYSING
DATA</span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 45.0pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">According to the definition of third
states mentioned above, there is an obvious meaning of third states, third
state is a State not a party to a treaty. So we can assume that third state
means a state which only do contract and negotiate in a treaty when the treaty
not yet in force. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">If we analyze the manner of formulation
of art. 34, indicates that it is drafted in less absolute terms; it means that
a treaty does not create rights and obligations for a third state without it
consent. So, we can say that a treaty may create rights and obligations for a
third states but under condition of the consent of the third state.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The purpose of the provisions of Article
35 and 36 is to protect the third states from a wrong obligation which is
stated by the parties of a treaty to it and in relation to rights the
convention also prevent the party of the treaty from the possibility of third
states desirability that want a huge
right, indeed the right of third states more than the right of the parties.
Therefore, the convention regulates clearly about it to avoid any kind of
problems that may raise.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">As to the creation of an obligation for
a third state, the International Law Commission esplained that two conditions
must be fulfilled before a non-party can be considered to be bound by a
provision of a treaty to which it is not a party: first, the parties to the
treaty must have had intended the provision in question to be the means
establishing an obligation for a state not a party to the treaty; and secondly,
the third state must have espressly agreed to be bound by the obligation in writing.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article 37 (1) mentions explicitly about
the modification of a treaty imposing a third state with some obligations, has
to be consented on both sides ( third parties and parties of the treaty). It is
clear that if one side do not assent to modify the treaty, the modification or
revocation of that treaty is illegal. Furthermore, Article 37 (2) regulates
differently that modification in relation to a rights is illegal without third
states agreement.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Article
38 regulates about rights or obligations of third states in diffirent way. This
article means that in an international law not only a treaty has a significant
role, but also an international custom has such role in making a rule and norm
of international law.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CHAPTER
IV</span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">CONCLUSION</span></b></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The definition of the third state
according to 1969 Vienna Convention that can be concluded is a state not a
party to a treaty and a state which want to be a party of a treaty (
contracting state or negotiating state).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Even not a party to the treaty, third
states still have rights and obligations which are provided by the convention
in order to make a balance between third states and the party to treaty. In
relation to this, </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">the third state must have
expressly accepted the obligation in writing.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The
Convention still consider about the interest of both side ( third states and
party to treaty) which provides the regulation in relation to modification or
revocation of obligations and rights relating to both sides.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">BIBLIOGRAPHY</span></b></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center; text-indent: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">1969
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaty</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Malgosia Fitzmaurice, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Third
States and Treaties</i>”, 2002</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Anthony Aust, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Modern Treaty Law and Practice, </i>Second Edition, Cambridge
University Press, 2007</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">·<span style="font: 7pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">D.P. O’Conell,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; padding: 0in;">International Law</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">, Vol.1, Stevens and Sons,
London, 1970</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b></span></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Malgosia Fitzmaurice, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Third
States and Treaties”,</i> 2002, p. 40</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span></a> <span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Anthony Aust, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Modern Treaty Law and Practice, </i>Second Edition, Cambridge
University Press, 2007, p.256.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></a> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ibid.</i></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ibid, p.259</i></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a> <span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Georgia","serif";">D.P.
O’Conell,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Georgia","serif";"> </span></span><i><span style="border: 1pt none windowtext; color: #333333; font-family: "inherit","serif"; padding: 0in;">International Law</span></i><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Georgia","serif";">,
Vol.1, Stevens and Sons, London, 1970, p. 246</span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span></a>
Anthony Aust, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">op.cit, </i>p.260</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span></a> <span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Georgia","serif"; font-size: 10.5pt;">Malgosia Fitzmaurice, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">op.cit,
</i>p. 46-47</span></span></div>
</div>
</div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-74256833492534411782012-02-13T22:37:00.000-08:002012-02-14T07:53:15.191-08:00THE ELEMENTS OF GENOCIDE UNDER THE 1948 CONVENTION ON GENOCIDE<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">CHAPTER I</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">INTRODUCTION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">BACKGROUND</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The year 2008 marks the 60th anniversary of the Convention on the
Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. It is also the 20th
anniversary of the ratification of this treaty by the United States. As
Americans consider our country’s role in the world in the years to come, we are
convinced that the U.S. government can and must do more to prevent genocide, a
crime that threatens not only our values, but our national interests. The world
agrees that genocide is unacceptable and yet genocide and mass killings
continue. <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Convention on the Prevention and
Punishment of the Crime of Genocide</span> was adopted by the </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">United Nations General Assembly</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">
on 9 December 1948 as <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">General Assembly
Resolution 260</span>. The Convention entered into force on 12 January 1951.<sup>
<a name='more'></a>
</sup>It defines </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">genocide</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">
in legal terms, and is the culmination of years of campaigning by lawyer </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raphael_Lemkin" title="Raphael Lemkin"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Raphael Lemkin</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">.
Yaur Auron writes "When Raphael Lemkin coined the word genocide in 1944 he
cited the 1915 annihilation of Armenians as a seminal example of
genocide". All participating countries are advised to prevent and punish
actions of genocide in war and in peacetime. The number of states that have
ratified the convention is currently 140.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The drafting history (<i>travaux preparatoir</i>) of
the Genocide Convention, in fact, reveals such a scandal. At the outset, the
discourse of genocide was within the domain of international</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">lawyers
who argued for genocide that includes politicide; in its later development, diplomats
and policy makers nurtured the concept in the spirit of realist politics. The drafting
of the Genocide Convention was then a subject of political compromise, developed
by legal conferences, and hence, formatted in legal realism. And the legal realists,
according to Barnet (1978: 97-98), “are distinctive … in their preoccupation
with the process of judicial decisions, with how law is made…. Law is here
taken as a social phenomenon, as a decision or process of <i>authoritative
decisions</i>” (italics added). Among the most important “authoritative
decisions” were the exclusion of politicide and elimination of universal
jurisdiction from the Genocide Convention. The drafting process was, indeed, “authoritative”,
because the delegates to the genocide conference in 1948 were equipped with
“full power” from their respective governments and thus they made authoritative
decisions on behalf of the governments. To save the world from the peril of
genocide was then a noble endeavour pursued by these diplomats; underneath,
however, their mission was clear: “to insulate political leaders from scrutiny
and liability” (Van Schaack, 1997:1). One way of doing this was by defining the
term “genocide” to have a narrow meaning</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">that
excludes almost everything.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Then, the porpose of this paper is to give an explanation
regarding to the term of genocide and its elements according to 1948 Convention
on Genocide.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">PROBLEMS
IDENTIFICATION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Based
on the background which was mentioned above this mini research paper will elaborate:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">What
is meant by genocide according to 1948 Convention on Genocide?</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo4; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b)<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">What
is the elements of genocide according to Genocide Convention?</span></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">CHAPTER
II</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">THEORETICAL
BASIS</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The
Definition of Genocide</span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">By
the time<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the General Assembly completed
its standard setting, with the 1948<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>adoption of the Convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide, ‘genocide’ had a detailed and quite technical definition as a
crime against the law of nations. Yet the preamble of that instrument
recognizes ‘that at all periods of history genocide has inflicted great losses
on humanity’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>Article
2 of the 1948 Convention on Genocide: </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">In the present
Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group,
as such:</span></i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="" name="Article_2.1"><span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(a) Killing members of
the group;</span></i></a><span style="mso-bookmark: "Article_2\.1";"></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="" name="Article_2.2"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(b) Causing serious
bodily or mental harm to members of the group;</span></i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="" name="Article_2.3"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(c) Deliberately
inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its
physical destruction in whole or in part;</span></i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="" name="Article_2.4"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(d) Imposing measures
intended to prevent births within the group;</span></i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 31.5pt; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: list 31.5pt; text-indent: -.25in;">
<a href="" name="Article_2.5"><span style="color: black; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(e) Forcibly
transferring children of the group to another group.</span></i></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Raphael Lemkin defined
genocide as “ a coordinate plan of different actions aiming at the destruction
of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of
annihilating the groups themselves”. He said that the objective of such a plan
would be disintegration of the political and social institutions of culture,
language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national
groups and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity,
and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups. For Lemkin,
“genocide is directed against the national group as an entity, and the actions
involved are directed against individuals, not in their individual capacity,
but as members of the national groups”.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo3; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Elements of Genocide</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 67.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Objective Elements</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As mentioned in article
II of the Genocide Convention, There are several objective elements of
genocide, namely:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">killing members ( more
than one members ) of a ‘protected group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">causing serious bodily
or mental harm to members of a ‘protected group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">deliberately inflicting
on the group conditions of life calculating to bring about physical
destruction;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">imposing measures
intended to prevent birth within the group;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l10 level1 lfo6; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">forcibling transferring
children.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 67.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo5; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Subjective Elements</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The mental requirement
for genocide as a crime involving international criminal liability is provided
for in article II (1) of the Convention on Genocide, namely:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The ‘intent to destroy’,
in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo7; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genocide is a typical crime
based on the ‘depersonalization of the victim’, that is a crime where the
victim is not targeted on account of his or her individual qualities or
characteristic, but only because he or she is a member of a group;<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">CHAPTER
III</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">ANALYSING
DATA</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">“The definition of genocide requires a degree of
knowledge of the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ultimate objective of
the criminal conduct rather than knowledge of every detail of a comprehensive
plan or policy of genocide. A subordinate is presumed to know the intentions of
his superiors when he receives orders to commit the prohibited acts against
individuals belonging to a particular group. He cannot escape responsibility if
he carries out the orders to commit the destructive acts against victims who
are selected because of their membership in a particular group by claiming that
he was not privy to all aspects of the comprehensive genocidal plan or policy.
The law does not permit an individual to shield himself from the obvious. For
example, a soldier who is ordered to go from house to house and kill only
persons who are members of a particular group cannot be unaware of the
irrelevance of the identity of the victims and the significance of their
membership in a particular group. He cannot be unaware of the relevance of the
destructive effect of this criminal conduct on the group itself. Thus the
necessary degree of knowledge and intent may be inferred from the nature of the
order to commit the prohibited acts of destruction against individuals who
belong to particular group and are therefore singled out as the immediate
victims of the massive criminal conduct.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">So, what is meant by the concept of ‘protected
group’?. Based on the wording and the history of the definition of genocide,
the Court<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
rejected a <i>negative </i>construction of the concept of ‘ protected group ’,
which considers as a protected group all individuals rejected by the
perpetrators of the atrocities. This is correct and nothing must be added to
the compelling reasoning underlying that position. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is worth adding, however, that the Court’s
reasoning would seem to also exclude – albeit only by implication – a purely <i>subjective
</i>concept of ‘ protected group’, meaning a conception of the group based on
the views of the alleged group or perpetrators. The Court correctly recalled
that ‘ the drafters of the Convention also gave close</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">attention
to the positive identifi cation of groups with specifi c distinguishing
characteristics</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">in
deciding which groups they would include and which (such as political groups)
they would exclude ’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">As mentioned above, genocide is </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">a crime where the victim
is not targeted on account of his or her individual qualities or
characteristics, but only because he or she is a member of a group. As the
German Federal Court of Justice rightly held in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jorgic </i>in 1999, the perpetrators of genocide do not target a person
‘in his capacity as an individual’; ‘they do not see the victim as a human
being but only as a member of the persecuted group’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genocide by killing members of the group<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The conduct of this type
is the perpetrator killed one or more persons. The term “killed” is
interchangeable with the term “caused death”. The perpetrator intended to
destroy, in whole or in part, that national, ethnical, racial or religious
group, as such. The conduct took place in the context of a manifest pattern of
similar conduct directed against that group or was conduct that could itself
effect such destruction.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genocide by causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of a
‘protected group’.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">This conduct may include,
but is not necessarily restricted to, acts of torture, rape, sexual violence or
inhuman or degrading treatment. The circumstance of this is such person or
persons belonged to a particular national, ethnical, racial, or religious
group. </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
conduct took place in the context of a manifest pattern of similar conduct
directed against that group or was conduct that could itself effect such
destruction.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genocide by deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of
life calculating to bring about physical destruction.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The
perpetrator inflicted certain conditions of life upon one or more persons. The
term "conditions of life" may include, but is not necessarily
restricted to, deliberate deprivation of resources indispensable for survival,
such as food or medical services, or systematic expulsion from homes. The
conditions of life were calculated to bring about the physical destruction of
that group, in whole or in part.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Genocide by </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">imposing measures intended to prevent birth
within the group.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The
measures imposed were intended to prevent births within that group.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such person or persons belonged to a
particular national, ethnical, racial or religious group.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Akayesu
</i>it was held that these measures could consist of ‘sexual mutilation’, the
practice of sterilization, forced birth control ( and the ) separation of the
sexes and prohibition of marriages’; in addition, the measures at issue may be
not only physical but also mental; they may be include rape as an act directed
to prevent births when the woman raped refuses subsequently to procrate.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level2 lfo2; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Genocide by </span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">forcibling transferring children of the group to
another group.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
conduct is the perpetrator forcibly transferred one or more persons. </span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The term
"forcibly" is not restricted to physical force, but may include
threat of force or coercion, such as that caused by fear of violence, duress,
detention, psychological oppression or abuse of power, against such person or
persons or another person, or by taking advantage of a coercive environment.
The circumstance of this is the person or persons were under the age of 18
years and The perpetrator knew, or should have known, that the person or
persons were under the age of 18 years.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">CHAPTER
IV</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">CONCLUSION</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Raphael Lemkin, </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">genocide is as “ a
coordinate plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential
foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the
groups themselves”. He said that the objective of such a plan would be
disintegration of the political and social institutions of culture, language,
national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups and
the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even
the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 67.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo8; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Objective Elements</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">As mentioned in article
II of the Genocide Convention, There are several objective elements of
genocide, namely:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">killing members ( more
than one members ) of a ‘protected group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">causing serious bodily
or mental harm to members of a ‘protected group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">c.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">deliberately inflicting
on the group conditions of life calculating to bring about physical
destruction;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">d.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">imposing measures
intended to prevent birth within the group;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">e.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">forcibling transferring
children.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo9; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">f.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Subjective Elements</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: 31.5pt;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The mental requirement
for genocide as a crime involving international criminal liability is provided
for in article II (1) of the Convention on Genocide, namely:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 85.5pt; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo10; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">a.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The ‘intent to destroy’,
in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group’;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 85.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">b.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Genocide is a typical crime based on the ‘depersonalization of the
victim’;</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">BIBLYOGRAPHY</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="A11"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Madeleine
K. Albright and William S. Cohen, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Preventing
Genocide, </i>United State of America: <span class="A11"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">United
States Holocaust Memorial Museum, The American Academy of Diplomacy, and the Endowment
of the United States Institute of Peace, 2008;</span></span><span class="A11"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; line-height: 200%; mso-ansi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><a href="http://www.wikipedia.com/"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">www.Wikipedia.com</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Siswo Pramono, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Account of the theory of genocide, </i>Canberra: Australian National
University, 2002;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">William A. Schabas, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genocide in International Law</i>, Cambridge: the press syndicate of
the university of Cambridge, 2000;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">William Schabas, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Genocide Convention at Fifty, </i>Washington DC: United States
Institute of Peace <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Special Report,
1999;</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Unknown, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Criminal Law;</i></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">(Report of the International Law
Commission on the work of its forty-eighth session 6 May-26 July 1996, 51U.N.
G.A.O.R. Supp. (No. 10), U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996);</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Claus Kreb, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The International Court of Justice and the Elements of the Crime of
Genocide, </i>The European<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of Internatioanl
Law Vol. 18 no.4;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo11; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Courier New";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">o<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">The report of the Preparatory Commisson
for the International Criminal Court, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elements
of the Crime of Genocide, </i>6 July 2000;</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"> Madeleine K. Albright and
William S. Cohen, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Preventing Genocide, </i>United
State of America: <span class="A11"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">United
States Holocaust Memorial Museum, The American Academy of Diplomacy, and the
Endowment of the United States Institute of Peace, 2008, p. ix</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
www.Wikipedia.com</div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a>
Siswo Pramono, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An Account of the theory
of genocide, </i>Canberra: Australian National University, 2002, p. 2</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a>
William A. Schabas, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genocide in
International Law</i>, Cambridge: the press syndicate of the university of
Cambridge, 2000, p. 14 </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a> William
Schabas, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Genocide Convention at
Fifty, </i>Washington DC: <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">United
States Institute of Peace </span><span style="font-family: OfficinaSans-Bold; font-size: 9.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: OfficinaSans-Bold; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Special
Report, 1999, p. 2</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>
Unknown, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Criminal Law, </i>p.
137</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 9.0pt;">(Report of the
International Law Commission on the work of its forty-eighth session 6 May-26
July 1996, 51U.N. G.A.O.R. Supp. (No. 10), U.N. Doc. A/51/10 (1996), p.90).</span><span style="font-size: 9.0pt;"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>
The International Court of Justice</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn9" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn9;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[9]</span></span></span></span></a>
Claus Kreb, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The International Court of
Justice and the Elements of the Crime of Genocide, </i>The European<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of Internatioanl Law Vol. 18 no.4, p. 623</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn10" style="mso-element: footnote;">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn10;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[10]</span></span></span></span></a>
Unknown, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Criminal Law, </i>p.
137</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn11" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn11;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[11]</span></span></span></span></a>
The report of the Preparatory Commisson for the International Criminal Court, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elements of the Crime of Genocide, </i>6
July 2000.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn12" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn12;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[12]</span></span></span></span></a>
ibid</div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn13;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[13]</span></span></span></span></a>
ibid</div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn14;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[14]</span></span></span></span></a>
ibid</div>
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<div id="ftn15" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn15;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[15]</span></span></span></span></a>
Unknown, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Criminal Law, </i>p.
134</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn16" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=4575428400637196972#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn16;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">[16]</span></span></span></span></a>
The report of the Preparatory Commisson for the International Criminal Court, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elements of the Crime of Genocide, </i>6
July 2000</div>
</div>
</div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-59213095462045135542012-02-13T22:27:00.000-08:002012-02-14T07:55:05.784-08:00ASAS – ASAS DALAM HUKUM PERDATA, HUKUM DAGANG, HUKUM ADAT, DAN HUKUM ISLAM<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<br />
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas – Asas Hukum Perdata</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum perdata adalah aturan – aturan hukum yang mengatur tingkah laku
setiap orang terhadap orang lain yang berkaitan dengan hak dan kewajiban yang timbul
dalam pergaulan masyarakat maupun keluarga.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum perdata dibagi 2, yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum
Perdata Materil, yaitu mengatur kepentingan – kepentingan perdata setiap subjek
hukum ( substansi hukum ).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo6; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum
Perdata Formil, yaitu mengatur bagaimana cara seseorang mempertahankan haknya
apabila dilanggar oleh orang lain.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sistimatika
Hukum Perdata dibagi menjadi beberapa bagian, dalam beberapa bagian Buku, yaitu
;<br />
1. Buku 1, Tentang Orang<br />
2. Buku 2, Tentang Benda<br />
3. Buku 3, Tentang Perikatan<br />
4. Buku 4, Tentang Pembuktian dan Daluwarsa</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto;">
<a name='more'></a>
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum perdata menurut ilmu pengetahuan lazimnya dibagi dalam
4 bagian yaitu: </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum perorangan/badan pribadi ( personenrecht ),</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> mengatur antara lain:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Orang sebagai subjek
hukum</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo8; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Orang dalam
kecakapannya untuk memiliki hak – hak dan bertindak sendiri untuk melaksanakan
haknya itu.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum keluarga (f amilirecht )</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, memuat peraturan – peraturan hukum yang mengatur hubungan
hukum yang timbul karena hubungan keluarga / kekeluargaan seperti perkawinan,
perceraian, hubungan orang tua dan anak, perwalian, curatele, dan sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum harta kekayaan(vermogenrecht )</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">, memuat peraturan – peraturan hukum yang mengatur hubungan
hukum seseorang dalam lapangan harta kekayaan seperti perjanjian, milik, gadai
dan sebagainya.</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo7; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum waris( erfrecht ),</span></i><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
memuat peraturan – peraturan hukum yang mengatur tentang benda atau harta
kekayaan seseorang yang telah meninggal dunia. Dengan kata lain hukum waris
adalah hukum yang mengatur peralihan benda dari orang yang meninggal dunia
kepada orang yang masih hidup ( ahli warisnya ).</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas – Asas Hukum Dagang</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
Perdagangan atau Perniagaan pada umumnya
adalah pekeerjaan membeli barang dari suatu tempat dan suatu waktu dan menjual
barang tersebut di tempat dan waktu lainnya untuk memperolehkeuntungan. Hukum
dagang adalah hukum yang mengatur soal-soal perdagangan, yang timbul karena
tingkah laku manusia dalam perdagangan.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber hukum dagang yaitu:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo9; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber hukum tertulis yang telah
dikodifikasi:</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kitab
Undang – Undang Hukum Dagang</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
KUHD yang mulai berlaku di Indoneia pada 1 Mei 1848
terbagi atas dua kitab dan 23 bab. Di dalam KUHD jelas tercantum bahwa
implementasi dan pengkhususan dari cabang-cabang hukum dagang bersumber pada
Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Dagang Isi pokok daripada KUHD Indonesia adalah:</div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kitab
pertama berjudul Tentang Dagang Umumnya, yang memuat 10 bab. </span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo12; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Kitab kedua berjudul Tentang Hak-hak
dan Kewajiban-kewajiban yang Terbit dari Pelayaran<b>, </b>terdiri dari 13 bab.</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.0in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo10; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kitab
Undang – Undang Hukum Perdata</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ketentuan
KUHPerdata yang secara nyata menjadi sumber hukum dagang adalah Buku III
tentang perikatan. Hal itu dapat dimengerti, karena sebagaimana dikatakan H.M.N
Purwosutjipto bahwa hukum dagang adalah hukum yang timbul dalam lingkup
perusahaan. Selain Buku III tersebut, beberapa bagian dari Buku II KUHPerdata tentang
Benda juga merupakan sumber hukum dagang, misalnya Titel XXI mengenai Hipotik.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber hukum tertulis yang belum
dikodifikasi:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Peraturan
Perdagangan di Luar KUHD, diantaranya adalah sebagai berikut:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UU No. 1 Tahun 1995 tentang Perseroan
terbatas</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UU No. 8 Tahun 1995 tentang Pasar
Modal</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 1.25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo13; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">UU No. 8 Tahun 1997 tentang Dokumen
Perusahaan</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l12 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas – Asas Hukum Adat</span></b></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Istilah Hukum Adat
merupakan terjemahan dari istilah Belanda “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Adat Recht</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">”, yang pertama sekali dikemukakan oleh Snouck Hurgronje yang
kemudian dipakai dalam bukunya “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">De Atjehers</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” (orang-orang Aceh). Istilah Adat-Recht ini kemudian dipakai
pula oleh van Vollenhoven yang menulis buku pokok tentang Hukum Adat yaitu “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Het Adat-Recht
van Nederlandsch Indie</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” (Hukum Adat
Hindia-Belanda).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pengertian Hukum Adat</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></b></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Dalam arti sempit
sehari-hari yang dinamakan Hukum Adat ialah: Hukum asli yang tidak tertulis
yang memberi pedoman kepada sebagian besar orang Indonesia dalam kehidupan
sehari-hari, dalam hubungan antara satu dengan lainnya baik di desa maupun di
kota.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Van Vollenhoven
berpendapat, Hukum Adat adalah keseluruhan aturan tingkah laku positif yang di
satu pihak mempunyai sanksi (oleh karena itu: “Hukum”) dan di pihak lain dalam
keadaan tidak dikodifikasikan (oleh karena itu “Adat”).</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sedangkan menurut Prof.
Hazairin Di dalam pidato inagurasinya yang berjudul: “Kesusilaan dan Hukum”
berpendapat bahwa seluruh lapangan hukum mempunyai hubungan dengan kesusilaan,
langsung ataupun tidak langsung. Dengan demikian maka dalam sistem hukum yang
sempurna tidak ada tempat bagi sesuatu yang tidak selaras atau yang
bertentangan dengan kesusilaan. Demikianlah juga dengan hukum adat; teristimewa
di sini dijumpai perhubungan dan persesuaian yang langsung antara hukum dan
kesusilaan; pada akhirnya antara hukum dan adat yaitu sedemikian langsungnya
sehingga istilah buatan yang disebut “Hukum Adat” itu tidak dibutuhkan oleh
Rakyat biasa yang memahamkan menurut halnya sebutan “Adat” itu atau dalam
artinya sebagai (Adat) sopan-santun atau dalam artinya sebagai hukum.
Selanjutnya Hazairin dalam masyarakat, yaitu bahwa: kaidah-kaidah Adat itu
berupa kaidah-kaidah kesusilaan yang kebenarannya telah mendapat pengakuan umum
dalam masyarakat itu. Meskipun ada perbedaan sifat atau perbedaan corak antara
kaidah-kaidah kesusilaan dan kaidah-kaidah hukum itu, namun bentuk-bentuk
perbuatan yang menurut hukum dilarang atau disuruh itu adalah menurut
kesusilaan bentuk-bentuk yang dicela atau dianjurkan juga, sehingga pada
hakikinya dalam patokan lapangan itu juga hukum itu berurat pada kesusilaan. Apa
yang tidak dapat terpelihara lagi hanya oleh kaidah-kaidah kesusilaan,
diikhtiarkan pemeliharaannya dengan kaidah-kaidah hukum.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yang dimaksud dengan
kaidah hukum ialah kaidah yang tidak hanya didasarkan kepada kebebasan pribadi
tetapi serentak mengekang pula kebebasan itu dengan suatu gertakan, suatu
ancaman paksaan yang dapat dinamakan ancaman hukum atau penguat hukum. Uraian
Hazairin ini memberi kesan kepada kita akan suatu pandangan yang agak lain dari
biasa.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Di sini Hazairin
menghilangkan suatu garis atau batas yang tegas antara hukum di pihak yang satu
dengan kesusilaan (kebiasaan, kelaziman, “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">zede</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” dan sebagainya) di pihak lain. Hazairin melihat antara hukum
(hukum adat) dan kesusilaan tidak ada suatu perbedaan hakiki. Dapat dikatakan
bahwa segala macam hukum yang ada, yaitu segala macam peraturan dalam hidup
kemasyarakatan yang mendapat pengakuan umum dalam masyarakat itu bersumber
kepada kesusilaan. Kaidah kesusilaan termasuk kaidah Adat dibaiarkan
pemeliharaannya kepada kebebasan pribadi yang dibatasi dengan dan dijuruskan
kepada suatu ancaman paksaan, yaitu: hukuman, pidana, penguat hukum.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Faham Hazairin tentang
Hukum Adat disesuaikan dengan faham rakyat, yaitu baik dalam arti (adat)
sopan-santun maupun dalam arti hukum.</span></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Sumber Hukum Adat</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Para sarjana berpendapat bahwa sumber hukum adat adalah :</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Adat kebiasaan</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Yurisprudensi</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Norma – norma Hukum Islam yang telah meresap ke dalam adat
istiadat masyarakat Indonesia</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Kitab – Kitab Hukum Adat</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Buku – buku standar tentang hukum adat</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pendapat ahli hukum adat</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l2 level1 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas – Asas Pokok dalam Hukum Adat</span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Religio Magis (</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Magisch-Religieus</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas religio magis
adalah pembulatan atau perpaduan kata yang mengandung unsur beberapa sifat atau
cara berpikir seperti prelogika, animisme, pantangan, ilmu gaib dan lain-lain. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Bushar Muhammmad
tentang pengertian religio-magis mengemukakan kata “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">participerend
cosmisch</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">” yang mengandung pengertian komplek. Orang
Indonesia pada dasarnya berpikir, merasa dan bertindak didorong oleh
kepercayaan (religi) kepada tenaga-tenaga gaib (magis) yang mengisi, menghuni
seluruh alam semesta (dunia kosmos) dan yang terdapat pada orang, binatang,
tumbuh-tubuhan besar dan kecil, benda-benda; dan semua tenaga itu membawa
seluruh alam semesta dalam suatu keadaan keseimbangan. Tiap tenaga gaib itu
merupakan bagian dari kosmos, dari keseluruhan hidup jasmaniah dan rokhaniah, “</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">participatie</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">”, dan keseimbangan itulah yang senantiasa harus ada dan
terjaga, dan apabila terganggu harus dipulihkan. Memulihkan keadaan
keseimbangan itu berujud dalam beberapa upacara, pantangan atau ritus (</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">rites de
passage</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">).</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Komun (</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Commun</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">)</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .25in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Komun berarti
mendahulukan kepentingan umum daripada kepentingan diri sendiri. Asas korum
merupakan segi atau corak yang khas dari suatu masyarakat yang masih hidup
sangat terpencil atau dalam hidupnya sehari-hari masih sangat tergantung kepada
tanah atau alam pada umumnya. Dalam masyarakat semacam itu selalu terdapat
sifat yang lebih mementingkan keseluruhan; lebih diutamakan kepentingan umum
daripada kepentingan individual. Dalam masyarakat semacam itu individualitas
terdesak ke belakang. Masyarakat, desa, dusun yang senantiasa memegang peranan
yang menentukan, yang pertimbangan dan putusannya tidak boleh dan tidak dapat
disia-siakan. Keputusan Desa adalah berat, berlaku terus dan dalam keadaan
apapun juga harus dipatuhi dengan hormat, dengan khidmat.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Contant (Tunai)</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">contant</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">atau tunai mengandung
pengertian bahwa dengan suatu perbuatan nyata, suatu perbuatan simbolis atau
suatu pengucapan, tindakan hukum yang dimaksud telah selesai seketika itu juga,
dengan serentak bersamaan waktunya tatkala berbuat atau mengucapkan yang
diharuskan oleh Adat. Dengan demikian dalam Hukum Adat segala sesuatu yang
terjadi sebelum dan sesudah timbang terima secara contan itu adalah di luar
akibat-akibat hukum dan memang tidak tersangkut patu atau tidak bersebab akibat
menurut hukum. Perbuatan hukum yang dimaksud yang telah selesai seketika itu
juga adalah suatu perbuatan hukum yang dalam arti yuridis berdiri sendiri.
Dalam arti urutan kenyataan-kenyataan, tindakan-tindakan sebelum dan sesudah
perbuatan yang bersifat contan itu mempunyai arti logis satu sama lain. Contoh
yang tepat dalam Hukum Adat tentang suatu perbuatan yang contant adalah:
jual-beli lepas, perkawinan jujur, melepaskan hak atas tanah, adopsi dan
lain-lain.</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas Konkrit ( Visual )</span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Pada umumnya dalam
masyarakat Indonesia kalau melakukan perbuatan hukum itu selalu konkrit
(nyata); misalnya dalam perjanjian jual-beli, si pembeli menyerahkan uang/uang
panjer.</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Di dalam alam berpikir
yang tertentu senantiasa dicoba dan diusahakan supaya hal-hal yang dimaksudkan,
diinginkan, dikehendaki atau akan dikerjakan ditransformasikan atau diberi ujud
suatu benda, diberi tanda yang kelihatan, baik langsung maupun hanya menyerupai
obyek yang dikehendaki (simbol, benda yang magis).</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Contoh:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Panjer</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">dalam maksud akan
melakukan perjanjian jual beli atau memindahkan hak atas tanah;</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">peningset (</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">panyangcang) dalam pertunangan atau akan melakukan perkawinan;</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">membalas dendam</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">terhadap seseorang
dengan membuat</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">patung,
boneka atau barang lain,</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">lalu barang itu</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-bidi; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">dimusnahkan,
dibakar, dipancung.</span></em></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Asas – Asas Hukum Islam</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Hukum syara’ menurut ulama ushul ialah doktrin (kitab) syari’ yang
bersangkutan dengan perbuatan orang-orang mukallaf yang bersangkutan dengan
perbuatan orang-orang mukallaf secara perintah atau diperintahkan memilih atau
berupa ketetapan (taqrir). Sedangkan menurut ulama fiqh hukum syara ialah efek
yang dikehendaki oleh kitab syari’ dalam perbuatan seperti wajib, haram dan mubah
.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Syariat menurut bahasa berarti jalan. Syariat menurut istilah berarti
hukum-hukum yang diadakan oleh Allah untuk umatNya yang dibawa oleh seorang
Nabi, baik hukum yang berhubungan dengan kepercayaan (aqidah) maupun
hukum-hukum yang berhubungan dengan amaliyah.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menurut
Prof. Mahmud Syaltout, syariat adalah peraturan yang diciptakan oleh Allah
supaya manusia berpegang teguh kepadaNya di dalam perhubungan dengan Tuhan
dengan saudaranya sesama Muslim dengan saudaranya sesama manusia, beserta
hubungannya dengan alam seluruhnya dan hubungannya dengan kehidupan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Menurut Muhammad ‘Ali At-Tahanawi dalam kitabnya Kisyaaf Ishthilaahaat
al-Funun memberikan pengertian syari’ah mencakup seluruh ajaran Islam, meliputi
bidang aqidah, ibadah, akhlaq dan muamallah (kemasyarakatan). Syari’ah disebut
juga syara’, millah dan diin.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hukum Islam</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> berarti keseluruhan ketentuan-ketentuan perintah Allah yang
wajib diturut (ditaati) oleh seorang muslim. Dari definisi tersebut syariat
meliputi:</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ilmu Aqoid (keimanan)</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ilmu Fiqih (pemahan manusia terhadap
ketentuan-ketentuan Allah)</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">Ø<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Ilmu Akhlaq ( kesusilaan )</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Berdasarkan uraian di atas dapat penulis simpulkan bahwa <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">hukum Islam</span> adalah syariat yang
berarti hukum-hukum yang diadakan oleh Allah untuk umat-Nya yang dibawa oleh
seorang Nabi, baik hukum yang berhubungan dengan kepercayaan (aqidah) maupun
hukum-hukum yang berhubungan dengan amaliyah (perbuatan).</span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Asas hukum islam adalah suatu
kebenaran yang menjadi pokok dasar atau tumpuan Hukum Islam. Macam-macam asas
hukum islam adalah sebagai berikut :</span></div>
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<em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></em><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Adam
al-Haraj (Meniadakan Kesukaran)</span></em></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Dalam
menetapkan syariat Islam, al-Quran senantiasa memperhitungkan kemampuan manusia
dalam melaksanakannya. Itu diwujudkan dengan mamberikan kemudahan dan
kelonggaran</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">(tasamuh wa rukhsah)</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">kepada manusia, agar menerima
ketetapan hukum dengan kesanggupan yang dimiliknya.</span></span></div>
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<em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></em><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Taqlil
Al-taklif (Menyedikitkan pembebanan)</span></em></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Prinsipkedua
ini merupakan langkah prenventif (penanggulangan) terhadap</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">mukallaf</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">dari pengurangan atau penambahan
dalam kewajiban agama. Al-Quran tidak memberikan hukum kepada</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">mukallaf</span></em><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">agar ia menambahi atau menguranginya,
meskipun hal itu mungkin dianggap wajar menurut kacamata sosial. Hal ini
berguna memperingan dan menjaga nilai-nilai kemaslahatan manusia pada umumnya,
agar tercipta suatu pelaksanaan hukum tanpa didasari parasaan terbebani yang
berujung pada kesulitan.</span></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></em></div>
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<em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></em><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Tadarruj
fi al-Tasyri’ (Berangsur-angsur dalam pesyariatan)</span></em></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Hal
ini terkait erat dengan prinsip kedua, yakni tidak memberatkan umat. Karena
itulah, hukum syariat dalam al-Quran tidak diturunkan secara serta merta dengan
format yang final, melainkan secara bertahap, dengan maksud agar umat tidak
merasa terkejut dengan syariat yang tiba-tiba. Karenanya, wahyu al-Quran
senantiasa turun sesuai dengan kondisi dan realita yang terjadi pada waktu itu.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></em><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Muthobiqun
Li Mashalihil Ummah (Sejalan dengan kemashlahatan ummat)</span></em></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Manusia
adalah obyek dan subyek legislasi hukum al-Quran. Seluruh hukum yang terdapat
dalam al-Quran diperuntukkan demi kepentingan dan perbaikan kehidupan umat,
baik mengenai jiwa, akal, keturunan, agama, maupun pengelolaan harta benda,
sehingga penerapan hukumnya al-Quran senantiasa memperhitungkan lima
kemaslahatan, di situlah terdapat syariat Islam.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="margin-left: 0in; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="mso-list: l10 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span></i></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Tahqiqul
‘Adalah (</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Menghendaki adanya
realisasi keadilan)</span></span></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #23140d; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">Persamaan
hak di muka adalah salah satu prinsip utama syariat Islam, baik yang berkaitan
dengan ibadah atau muamalah. Persamaan hak tersebut tidak hanya berlaku bagi
umat Islam, tatapi juga bagi seluruh agama. Mereka diberi hak untuk memutuskan
hukum sesuai dengan ajaran masing-masing, kecuali kalau mereka dengan sukarela
meminta keputusan hukum sesuai hukum Islam.</span></span><em><span style="color: #23140d; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"></span></em></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-57061570334052968052012-02-13T22:25:00.001-08:002012-02-14T07:55:43.523-08:00Hukum Asuransi<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">A.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Pengaturan
Asuransi</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">KUHPerdata </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">KUHD (Ps. 246 s/d 308)</span></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l1 level3 lfo2; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">UU Nomor 2 Th 1992 tentang Usaha Perasuransian </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Keppres RI No. 40 Th ttg Usaha di Bidang Asuransi
Kerugian </span></div>
<a name='more'></a>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Keputusan Menteri Keuangan RI No. 1249/KMK.013/1988
ttg Ketentuan & Tata Cara Pelaksanaaan Usaha di Bidang Asuransi Kerugian </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">KMK RI No. 1250/KMK.013/1988 ttg Usaha Asuransi Jiwa.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; margin-left: .25in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">B.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Pengertian
Asuransi</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 12.0pt;">Menurut Pasal 246 KUHD Asuransi atau pertanggungan adalah suatu
perjanjian, dengan mana seorang penanggung mengikatkan diri kepada seorang
tertanggung, dengan menerima suatu premi, untuk memberikan penggantian
kepadanya karena suatu kerugian, kerusakan, atau kehilangan keuntungan yang
diharapkan, yang mungkin akan dideritanya karena suatu peristiwa yang tak
tertentu.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 8.4pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Menurut
Undang-Undang No.2 Tahun 1992 Pasal 1 : “Asuransi atau pertanggungan adalah
perjanjian antara dua pihak atau lebih, dengan mana pihak Penanggung
mengikatkan diri kepada tertanggung, dengan menerima premi asuransi, untuk
memberikan penggantian kepada tertanggung karena kerugian, kerusakan atau
kehilangan keuntungan yang diharapkan, atau tanggung jawab hukum kepada pihak
ketiga yang mungkin akan diderita tertanggung yang timbul dari suatu peristiwa
yang tidak pasti, atau untuk memberikan suatu pembayaran yang didasarkan atas
meninggal atau hidupnya seseorang yang dipertanggungkan”.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 8.4pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.4pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Perjanjian
asuransi adalah sebuah kontrak legal yang menjelaskan setiap istilah dan
kondisi yang dilindungi, premi yang harus dibayar oleh tertanggung kepada
penanggung sebagai jasa pengalihan resiko tersebut, serta besarnya dana yang
bisa diklaim di masa depan, termasuk biaya administrative dan keuntungan.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 8.4pt; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 8.4pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">C.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Manfaat
Asuransi</span></b></div>
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<span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt;">Memberikan
jaminan perlindungan dari risiko-risiko kerugian yang diderita satu pihak.</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="font-size: 12.0pt;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 24.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Meningkatkan
efisiensi, karena tidak perlu secara khusus mengadakan pengamanan dan
pengawasan untuk memberikan perlindungan yang memakan banyak tenaga, waktu dan
biaya.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Transfer
Resiko; Dengan membayar premi yang relatif kecil, seseorang atau perusahaan
dapat memindahkan ketidakpastian atas hidup dan harta bendanya (resiko) ke
perusahaan asuransi</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemerataan
biaya, yaitu cukup hanya dengan mengeluarkan biaya yang jumlahnya tertentu dan
tidak perlu mengganti/membayar sendiri kerugian yang timbul yang jumlahnya
tidak tentu dan tidak pasti.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 24.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dasar
bagi pihak bank untuk memberikan kredit karena bank memerlukan jaminan
perlindungan atas agunan yang diberikan oleh peminjam uang.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Sebagai
tabungan, karena jumlah yang dibayar kepada pihak asuransi akan dikembalikan
dalam jumlah yang lebih besar. Hal ini khusus berlaku untuk asuransi jiwa.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 24.0pt; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo3; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Menutup
Loss of Earning Power seseorang atau badan usaha</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Calibri; mso-bidi-theme-font: minor-latin;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">D.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Asuransi
dalam Islam</span></b></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Mengingat masalah asuransi ini
sudah memasyarakat di Indonesia dan diperkirakan ummat Islam banyak terlibat di
dalamnya, maka permasalahan tersebut perlu juga ditinjau dari sudut pandang
agama Islam.Di kalangan ummat Islam ada anggapan bahwa asuransi itu tidak
Islami. Orang yang melakukan asuransi sama halnya dengan orang yang mengingkari
rahmat Allah.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Allah-lah yang menentukan segala-segalanya
dan memberikan rezeki kepada makhluk-Nya, sebagaimana firman Allah SWT, yang
artinya:<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">“Dan tidak ada suatu binatang
melata pun dibumi mealinkan Allah-lah yang memberi rezekinya.”</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Q. S. Hud: 6)<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">“……dan siapa (pula) yang memberikan rezeki
kepadamu dari langit dan bumi? Apakah di samping Allah ada Tuhan (yang
lain)?……”</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Q. S.
An-Naml: 64)<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">“Dan kami telah menjadikan
untukmu dibumi keperluan-keprluan hidup, dan (kami menciptakan pula)
makhluk-makhluk yang kamu sekali-kali bukan pemberi rezeki kepadanya.”</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(Q. S. Al-Hijr: 20)Dari ketiga ayat
tersebut dapat dipahami bahwa Allah sebenarnya telah menyiapkan segala-galanya
untuk keperluan semua makhluk-Nya, termasuk manusia sebagai khalifah di muka
bumi. Allah telah menyiapkan bahan mentah, bukan bahan matang. Manusia masih
perlu mengolahnya, mencarinya dan mengikhtiarkannya.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Melibatkan diri ke dalam
asuransi ini, adalah merupakan salah satu ikhtiar untuk mengahadapi masa depan
dan masa tua. Namun karena masalah asuransi ini tidak dijelaskan secara tegas dalam
nash, maka masalahnya dipandang sebagai masalah ijtihadi, yaitu masalah yang
mungkin masih diperdebatkan dan tentunya perbedaan pendapat sukar dihindari.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ada<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>beberapa pandangan atau pendapat
mengenai asuransi ditinjau dari fiqh Islam. Yang paling mengemuka perbedaan
tersebut terbagi tiga, yaitu:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">I. Asuransi itu haram dalam
segala macam bentuknya, temasuk asuransi jiwa<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Pendapat
ini dikemukakan oleh Sayyid Sabiq, Abdullah al-Qalqii (mufti Yordania), Yusuf
Qardhawi dan Muhammad Bakhil al-Muth‘i (mufti Mesir”). Alasan-alasan yang
mereka kemukakan ialah:</span></div>
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<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
sama dengan judi</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
mengandung unsur-unsur tidak pasti.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
mengandung unsur riba/renten.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level3 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">§<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Premi-premi
yang sudah dibayar akan diputar dalam praktek-praktek riba.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
termasuk jual beli atau tukar menukar mata uang tidak tunai.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level4 lfo4; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">·<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Hidup
dan mati manusia dijadikan objek bisnis, dan sama halnya dengan mendahului
takdir Allah.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;"> II. Asuransi konvensional
diperbolehkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Pendapat kedua ini
dikemukakan oleh Abd. Wahab Khalaf, Mustafa Akhmad Zarqa (guru besar Hukum
Islam pada fakultas Syari‘ah Universitas Syria), Muhammad Yusuf Musa (guru
besar Hukum Isalm pada Universitas Cairo Mesir), dan Abd. Rakhman Isa
(pengarang kitab al-Muamallha al-Haditsah wa Ahkamuha). Mereka beralasan:</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Tidak
ada nash (al-Qur‘an dan Sunnah) yang melarang asuransi.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Ada<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>kesepakatan dan kerelaan kedua belah
pihak.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Saling
menguntungkan kedua belah pihak.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
dapat menanggulangi kepentingan umum, sebab premi-premi yang terkumpul dapat di
investasikan untuk proyek-proyek yang produktif dan pembangunan.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
termasuk akad mudhrabah (bagi hasil)</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
termasuk koperasi (Syirkah Ta‘awuniyah).</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 76.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Wingdings; mso-bidi-font-family: Wingdings; mso-fareast-font-family: Wingdings;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">v<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Asuransi
di analogikan (qiyaskan) dengan sistem pensiun seperti taspen.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 58.5pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -22.5pt;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">III. Asuransi yang bersifat
sosial di perbolehkan dan yang bersifat komersial diharamkan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Pendapat ketiga ini dianut antara lain
oleh Muhammad Abdu Zahrah (guru besar Hukum Islam pada Universitas
Cairo).Alasan kelompok ketiga ini sama dengan kelompok pertama dalam asuransi
yang bersifat komersial (haram) dan sama pula dengan alasan kelompok kedua,
dalam asuransi yang bersifat sosial (boleh).</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Alasan golongan yang mengatakan
asuransi syubhat adalah karena tidak ada dalil yang tegas haram atau tidak
haramnya asuransi itu.Dari uraian di atas dapat dipahami, bahwa masalah
asuransi yang berkembang dalam masyarakat pada saat ini, masih ada yang
mempertanyakan dan mengundang keragu-raguan, sehingga sukar untuk menentukan,
yang mana yang paling dekat kepada ketentuan hukum yang benar.Sekiranya ada
jalan lain yang dapat ditempuh, tentu jalan itulah yang pantas dilalui.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Jalan alternatif baru yang
ditawarkan, adalah asuransi menurut ketentuan agama Islam.Dalam keadaan begini,
sebaiknya berpegang kepada sabda Nabi Muhammad SAW:<strong><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">“Tinggalkan hal-hal yang meragukan kamu
(berpeganglah) kepada hal-hal yagn tidak meragukan kamu.”</span></strong><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(HR. Ahmad)</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">Prinsip
– prinsip dasar asuransi syariah:</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">1.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Asuransi
syariah harus dibangun atas dasar taawun (kerja sama ), tolong menolong, saling
menjamin, tidak berorentasi bisnis atau keuntungan materi semata. Allah SWT
berfirman,” Dan saling tolong menolonglah dalam kebaikan dan ketaqwaan dan
jangan saling tolong menolong dalam dosa dan permusuhan.”</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">2.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Asuransi
syariat tidak bersifat mu’awadhoh, tetapi tabarru’ atau mudhorobah.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">3.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Sumbangan
(tabarru’) sama dengan hibah (pemberian), oleh karena itu haram hukumnya
ditarik kembali. Kalau terjadi peristiwa, maka diselesaikan menurut syariat.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">4.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Setiap
anggota yang menyetor uangnya menurut jumlah yang telah ditentukan, harus
disertai dengan niat membantu demi menegakan prinsip ukhuwah. Kemudian dari
uang yang terkumpul itu diambilah sejumlah uang guna membantu orang yang sangat
memerlukan.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">5.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Tidak
dibenarkan seseorang menyetorkan sejumlah kecil uangnya dengan tujuan supaya ia
mendapat imbalan yang berlipat bila terkena suatu musibah. Akan tetepi ia
diberi uang jamaah sebagai ganti atas kerugian itu menurut izin yang diberikan
oleh jamaah.</span></div>
<div style="line-height: 13.15pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: #333333; font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-theme-font: minor-latin; mso-hansi-theme-font: minor-latin;">6.<span class="apple-converted-space"> <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Apabila
uang itu akan dikembangkan, maka harus dijalankan menurut aturan syar’i.</span></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.9pt; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="margin-bottom: 6.9pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.9pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4575428400637196972.post-14843370850181186162012-02-13T22:23:00.001-08:002012-02-14T07:56:22.466-08:00PENDAFTARAN TANAH ( Peraturan Pemerintah No. 24 tahun 1997 )<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendaftaran tanah adalah
serangkaian kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah secara terus menerus,
berkesinambungan dan teratur, meliputi pengumpulan, pengolahan, pembukuan, dan
penyajian serta pemeliharaan data fisik dan data yuridis, dalam bentuk peta dan
daftar, mengenai bidang-bidang tanah dan satuan-satuan rumah susun, termasuk
pemberian surat tanda bukti hanya bagi bidang-bidang tanah yang sudah ada
haknya, dan hak milik atas satuan rumah susun serta hak-hak tertentu yang
membebaninnya. Pendaftaran tanah diatur sebelumnya dalam Peraturan Pemerintah
Nomor 10 Tahun 1961 tentang Pendaftaran Tanah.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tujuan Pendaftaran Tanah</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendaftaran tanah
bertujuan untuk memberikan kepastian hukum dan perlindungan hukum kepada
pemegang hak atas suatu bidang tanah, satuan rumah susun dan hak-hak lain yang
terdaftar, agar dengan mudah dapat membuktikan dirinya sebagai pemegang hak
yang bersangkutan, untuk menyediakan informasi kepada pihak-pihak yang
berkepentingan, termasuk Pemerintah agar dapat memperoleh data yang diperlukan
dalam mengadakan perbuatan-perbuatan hukum sehubungan dengan tanah dan rumah
susun, dan untuk dapat terselenggaranya tertib administrasi pertanahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<a name='more'></a>
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendaftaran Tanah</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendaftaran tanah diselenggarakan oleh Badan
Pertanahan Nasional, (“BPN”), dimana pelaksanaannya dilakukan oleh Kepala
Kantor Pertanahan (“Kantor Pertanahan”). Dalam menjalankan tugasnya, Kantor
Pertanahan dibantu oleh Pejabat Pembuat Akta Tanah yang diangkat dan
diberhentikan oleh Menteri Negara Agraria. Obyek dari pendaftaran tanah
meliputi:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Bidang-bidang tanah yang dipunyai dengan hak milik, hak guna
usaha, hak guna bangunan, dan hak pakai;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tanah hak pengelolaan;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tanah wakaf;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hak milik atas satuan rumah susun;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hak tanggungan;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 24.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -.25in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">tanah Negara.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pelaksanaan pendaftaran
tanah meliputi pendaftaran tanah untuk pertama kali, dan<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pemeliharaan pendaftaran tanah. Pendaftaran
tanah untuk pertama kali dilaksanakan melalui pendaftaran tanah secara
sistematik dan pendaftaran tanah secara sporadik. Kegiatan pendaftaran tanah
untuk pertama kali dilakukan dengan kegiatan pengumpulan dan pengolahan data
fisik, melalui kegiatan pengukuran dan pemetaan meliputi<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pembuatan peta dasar pendaftaran,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>penetapan batas bidang-bidang tanah,
pengukuran dan pemetaan bidang-bidang tanah dan pembuatan peta
pendaftaran,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>pembuatan daftar tanah, dan
pembuatan surat ukur.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pendaftaran hak atas
tanah maupun hak milik atas satuan rumah susun dibagi menjadi 2 (dua) bagian,
yaitu pembuktian hak baru, dan pembuktian hak lama. Pembuktian atas tanah baru
dibuktikan dengan penetapan pemberian hak dari Pejabat yang berwenang
memberikan hak menurut ketentuan yang berlaku, dan akta asli Pejabat Pembuat Akta
Tanah (“PPAT”) yang memuat pemberian hak tersebut. Pemberian hak milik atas
satuan rumah susun dibuktikan berdasarkan akta pemisahan, yang menunjukkan
satuan yang dimiliki, dan proposional atas kepemilikan rumah susun tersebut.
Pendaftaran hak lama dibuktikan dengan alat – alat bukti berupa bukti tertulis,
keterangan saksi dan/atau keterangan dari orang yang bersangkutan, yang kadar
kebenarannya ditentukan oleh instansi yang berwenang.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pembukuan Hak dan Penerbitan Sertifikat</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Hak atas tanah, hak
pengelolaan, tanah wakaf, hak milik atas satuan rumah susun didaftar dengan
membukukannya dalam buku tanah yang memuat data yuridis, yaitu keterangan atas
status hukum tanah atau rumah susun, dan data fisik, yaitu keterangan mengenai
batas, bidang, dan luas bidang tanah atau satuan rumah susun. Sertifikat
diterbitkan untuk kepentingan pemegang hak yang bersangkutan sesuai dengan data
fisik dan data yuridis yang ada di dalam buku tanah. Penerbitan sertifikat
tersebut bertujuan agar pemegang hak dapat dengan mudah membuktikan haknya.
Sertifikat adalah tanda bukti hak yang kuat, dalam arti bahwa selama data fisik
dan yuridis adalah data yang benar.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemeliharaan Data Pendaftaran Tanah</span></b><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 4.8pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Pemegang hak
berkewajiban untuk mendaftarkan tanah, apabila terjadi perubahan atas data
fisik atau yuridisi atas tanah. Misalnya apabila dilakukan pemisahan,
pemecahan, atau penggabungan bidang-bidang tanah, dan juga pembebanan atau
pemindahan hak atas sebidang tanah. Pemindahan hak hanya bisa dibuktikan dengan
suatu akta yang dibuat di depan PPAT, dan disaksikan oleh sekurang-kurangnya 2
(dua) orang saksi. Kemudian, akta mengenai pemindahan hak tersebut dikirim
selambat-lambatnya 7 (tujuh) hari sejak ditandatanganinya akta tersebut kepada
Kantor Pertanahan.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>Ilham Zahrihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/01486816307174550555noreply@blogger.com0